Before the dawn of History

• In earliest times medicine was based in magic and religion.
  
•  Sumerians living around 4,000 BC believed that demons were the cause of illness.
  
• In many cultures, physicians were priests, and sometimes considered as gods.
  
• Early man used materials in his surroundings, leaves, mud and cool water were used to stop bleeding and heal wounds.
  
• Dry clay was used to splint broken bones.

Pharmacy in Ancient Babylonia

• The Earliest known record of the art of apothecary (the former of the pharmacist) is in Mesopotamia at about 2600 BC.

• Babylonia healing practitioners combined the responsibilities of priest, physician, and pharmacist.

• Some of the oldest pharmacy records are found in Sumerian (Babylonian) clay cuneiform tablets that date back to about 2000 BC.

Pharmacy in Ancient China

• In ancient china (2000 BC) legend tells that emperor scen nung investigated the medical properties of hundreds of herbs.

• He recorded 365 native herbal drugs in the first pen T'sao (Book called "the great herbal")

Days of the papyrus Ebers

• One of the earliest known records written around 1500 BC was the ebers.

• It is the best known and most important pharmaceutical record from ancient history.

• It contains 800 Prescriptions using 700 Drugs, of particular note in the papyrus is inclusion of quantities of substances, which were largely missing from Babylonian clay tablets.

• Many modern disease forms are also referred to in the ebers papyrus as gargles, in inhalations, suppositories, plasters, and lotions etc.

Greeks

• Around 600 B.C the Greeks integrated science into mythological thinking.

• The began thinking Logically about disease rather than believing spiritual explanations.

• The Romans conquered the Greeks and the medical and pharmaceutical cultures merged, it is known as the Greco - Roman Era. 

The Ophrastus - Father of botany

• His Observations about the medicinal qualities of herbs have proven uncannily accurate.

• Theophrastus covered most aspects of botany: descriptions of plants, classification, plant distribution, propagation, germination, and cultivation.

Hippocrates "The Father of Medicine"

• He was a philosopher, physician and pharmacist.

• He liberated medicine from the mythical "Bad Spirits".

• Established the theory of humors which needed to be imbalanced for good health: (air - blood)  (water - phlegm)  (earth - black bile)  (fire - yellow bile)

Dioscorides - A scientist looks at Drugs

• He was a Greek physician and botanist.

• Wrote the first standard text/manual or Drugs called De materia medica, also called Pharmacopoeia.

• published 6 books that covered over 600 plants and their healing properties.

• His book was used for 1500 years.

Common Terms Used in Pharmacy

• Pharmacology :  The study of drugs ( from Greek pharmakon means Drug).

• Pharmacognosy : The Study of physical, chemical, biochemical and biological properties of drugs as well as drugs from natural sources.

• Pharmacopeia : An official listing of drugs and issues related to their use.

• Pharmaceutical : about drugs; also a drug product.

• Panacea : A cure - all ( from the Greek panakeia).

• Material Medica : A dictionary of medicinal plants.

Galen-Experimenter in Drug Compounding

• Galen (A.D 130 - 200) was a prominent roman (of Greek ethnicity) Physician, urgeon, and Philosopher.

• Developed Principles of preparing and compounding medicinal agents.

• sought to restore humeral balances within a patient by the use of medicine of opposing qualities.

• E.g. inflammation would be treated with cucumber, a cool drug.

• Galenical Pharmacy : The first pharmacy, described the process of creating extracts of active medicinal from plants.

Damian and cosmas - pharmacy's patron saints

• Whats's more from the Roman era came the twin brothers Damian and cosmas. they were christians of arabian descent. Damian was the apothecary, and cosmas the physician.

• They offered the solace of religion as well as the benefit of their knowledge to the sick who visited them.

• After canonization, they became the patron saints of pharmacy and medicine, and many miracles were attributed to them.

Roman Pharmacy titles

• Pharmacopeia : Marker of remedies.

• Pharmacotritae : Drug Grinders.

• Unguentarii : Markers of Ointments.

• Pigmentarii : Marker of Cosmetics.

• Pharmacopolae : seller of drugs.

• Aromatarii : Dealers of spices.

The Arabian Influence

• Major advances in this era.

• Formularies : The continuation of documentation of drug information.

• They also had different drug forms which are now used as : syrups, conserves, confections and juleps.

The First Apothecary shops

• The first pharmacy shop in the world was in baghdad about 792 A.D.

• They Preserved much of the Greco - Roman wisdom, added to it, developing with the aid of their natural resources :  syrups, confections, conserves, distilled water, and alcoholic liquids.

Avicenna - The "Persian Galen"

• Ibn sina (980 - 1037 A.D) - Avicenna - intellectual giant, he was a physician, poet philosopher, diplomat.

• His canon medicine brought together the best knowledge of the Greeks and Arabs into a single medical text.

• His pharmaceutical teachings were accepted as authority in the west until the 17th century; and still are dominant influences in the orient.

Seperation of pharmacy and medicine

• The middle ages : 

• Pharmacy differentiates in the middle ages, pharmaceutical knowledge available began to grow considerably thanks to the Arab world.

• Pharmacy as a separate activity began to develop and privately owned pharmacies were established in Islamic lands.

• Medicine and pharmacy were for the first time separated from each other.

• At the time of Fredrick II of Hohenstaufen, who was Emperor of Germany as well as king of sicily.

• This edict is known as the magna carta of pharmacy.

• The three decrees of the magna carta : * The Pharmaceutical Profession was to be seperated from the medical profession  * The Pharmaceutical profession should be supervised officially. * Pharmacists should take an oath to prepare drugs reliable, according to skilled art and in a uniform suitable quality.

Paracelsus

• Theophrastus phillippus Aureolus Bombastus von Hohenheim.

• Swiss born physician who believed in chemical treatment of disease rather than botanical.

The Renaissance : Pharmacists Flourished Too

• Following the middle ages, many parts of European society -examined the Greek and Roman tenets ( (Theories, Ideology) that they had as fact.

• Contemporary beliefs arose and Homeopathy had its origin in the renaissance period.

• During the renaissance professional associations of pharmacists emerged.

The First Official Pharacopeia

• The idea of a pharmacopoeia with official status, to be followed by all apothecaries originated in Florence.

• It was the result of collaboration of the Guild of Apothecaries and the medical society - one of the earliest manifestations of constructive inter professional relations.

The Society of Apothecaries of London

• In England, the pharmacist was under jurisdiction of guild of grocers, which monopolized the drug and spice trade.

• King James granted a character recognizing the society of apothecaries of London in 1671 A.D.

• Early English apothecaries compounded as well as dispensed drugs. they also provided medical advice.

• This was the first organization of pharmacists in the Anglo - Saxon world.

The Empiric era 1600 - 1940

• pharmacopeias were used to protect public health.

• Roots, bark, herbs, flowers etc. were used and controlled by the government.

• They questioned the toxicological effects on human body.

• Created interest in testing of drugs and how they affected the body.

• In the year 1751 Benjamin Franklin started the first hospital.

• In Pennsylvania, it was moved but still stands today.

• Jonathan Roberts first as pharmacist, later as physician, he advocated prescription writing and championed independent practice of two professions.

A Revolution in pharmaceutical Education

• When Sr. Albert B.Prescott launched the pharmacy courcy at the university of Michigan in 1868, critical attention was aroused because he abandoned the traditional requirement of pre-graduation apprenticeship.

• At the 1871 convention of the American pharmaceutical association, he was denied credentials and ostracized.

• However, the Michigan course pioneered other major changes : laboratory pharmacy, a definite curriculum that included basic sciences, and a program that demanded students 'full -time attention.

• During the next thirty years, Dr.Prescott had the satisfaction of seeing his once revolutionary innovations generally adopted by pharmaceutical faculties.

The Father of American Pharmacy

• william proctor.

• The father of American Pharmacy.

• He spent most of his life to the advancement of pharmacy.

• He owned an apothecary shop, teacher, editor and a scientist.

The 20th Century

• The Average Life span in the united states increased by over twenty years in the 20th century.

• A major factor in the increased health and life expectancy seen in this century, was the dramatic growth in pharmaceutical medicine.

• with the increasing availability of powerful drugs, their regulation became more important than ever.

• Food and drug Administration (FDA) was established in response to this need to regulate the sale and use of medication in the U.S

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

• Monitors drugs before a drug is marketed in the united states.

• The United States Food and Drug Administration is the government agency responsible for regulating food, dietary supplements, drugs, cosmetics, medical devices, biologic s and blood products in the United States. In the case of food supplements , the F.D.A. does almost nothing to ensure that dietary supplements work as advertised. It is only when supplements are proved to be unsafe or to contain regulated substances can the agency take action. 

• One aspect of its jurisdiction over food is regulation of the content of health claims on food labels.

• The F.D.A.’s role for drugs is very complicated. In most cases, the F.D.A. demands that manufacturers seeking to sell drugs in the United States, either over the counter or prescription, prove that they’re safe and effective.

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HEALTH EDUCATION

Introduction: Anatomical terms in relation to parts of the body, system and organs.
Elementary knowledge of the human skeleton; Tissues of the body – properties and
functions of epithelial, connective, muscular, nervous and osteous (bone) tissues; General
principles of membrane permeability, diffusion, transport, membrane potentials and
action potentials.

Nervous Systems: Neuron, Synapses, ganglion, plexus, physiology of nerve impulse,
neurotransmission, reflex arc, central nervous system (parts and functions) and autonomic
nervous system.

Cardiovascular System and Blood: Heart, blood vessels, cardiac cycle, circulation,
blood pressure and its regulations. Blood (composition and function).

Respiratory System: Gross anatomy of respiratory passages, physiology of respiration,
nervous control of respiration, vital capacity, respiratory volume, introduction to terms
such as anoxia, hypoxia & dyspnoea.

Digestive System: Gross anatomy of alimentary canal, movements of alimentary canal,
gastric secretions and the enzymes involved in digestion.


Endocrine System: Mechanisms of hormonal secretion, Physiological considerations of
thyroid, pancreas, pituitary, parathyroid, adrenal glands & gonads; Disorders of hypo &
hyper secretion.

Urinogental System: Various parts, structure and functions of the kidney and urinary
tract. Physiology of urine formation, output and factors controlling it.
Physiology of Special Senses: basic anatomy and physiology of the eye (vision), ear
(hearing), taste buds (Tongue), nose (smell) and skin (touch and pain).

Health Education (Epidemiology) and Family Planning.

Elementary pathology – Diseased and pathological processes. 

Inflammation and repair, 

Retrograde changes including disturbances of metabolism, 

Circulation like haemorrhage, 

Thrombosis and growth including various tumors (Neoplasms). 

Embolism, 

infarction, 

Oedema and shock. 

Nutritional disorder (Vitamin deficiency) 

PHARMACEUTICAL INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

a) Classification of Inorganic Pharmaceuticals based on their applications, therapeutic classes with example and uses. 

b) Quality control and tests for purity, qualitative tests for anions and cations. 

c) Limit test for Arsenic, heavy metals, Mercury, lead, iron, chloride and Sulphate and Pharmacopoeia Standards. 

Note: following units all the compounds are of IP except which are mentioned as BP. 

Definition, Preparation, Properties, Assay methods, Limit tests and Uses  

a) Gastro – intestinal agents:   

(i) Acidifiers and Antacids: IP: Dilute hydrochloric acid, sodium acid phosphate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium citrate, Potassium citrate, Aluminum hydroxide gel, Dried Aluminum hydroxide gel, Magnesium oxide (Magnesia), Magnesium-hydroxide mixture, Magnesium carbonate, Magnesium trisilicate, Calcium carbonate. 

(ii) Adsorbents and Related Drugs: Light kaolin, Heavy kaolin, Activated charcoal. 

(iii) Laxatives: Magnesium Sulphate and sodium phosphate. 

b) Electrolytes: Sodium, Potassium and Calcium replenishers.  

(i) Sodium and Potassium replenishers: Sodium chloride (compound, injection and Ringer solution), Sodium chloride and dextrose injection, Potassium chloride and oral electrolytes. 

(ii) Calcium Replenishers: Calcium chloride, Calcium gluconate, Dibasic calcium phosphate. 

(c)  Acid base Regulators: Sodium bicarbonate, sodium lactate injection, sodium citrate / Potassium citrate, sodium acetate, Ammonium chloride, Ammonium chloride injection.  

(d)  Dialysis fluids:  Haemodialysis fluids and intraperitoneal dialysis fluids.   

Definition, Preparation, Properties, Assay methods, Limit tests and Uses  

(a) Mineral Nutrients:   

 i. Haematinics: Ferrous Sulphate, Ferrous fumarate, Ferrous gluconate, Ferric ammonium citrate, iron and dextrose injection. 

 ii. Metallics: Copper, Manganese and Zinc compounds (zinc chloride);  

 iii. Phosphates: Sodium acid phosphate and Sodium phosphate,  

 iv. Halogens: Iodine and Iodides or fluorides. 

(b) Pharmaceutical aids:  

 i. Adsorbents & Absorbents: Activated charcoal, aluminium sulphate, aluminium  phosphate. 

 ii. Antioxidants: Sodium Sulphite, sodium bisulphate and sodium metabisulphite. 

 iii. Desiccants: Silica gel. 

 iv. Excipients: Dicalcium & Tricalcium Phosphate, Magnesium stearate, Talc & ppted chalk. 

 v. Suspending agents: Bentonite, colloidal silica, aluminium stearate,. 

 vi. Colourants: Titanium oxide, ferric oxide 

 vii. Solvent and Vehicle: Purified water 

Definition, Preparation, Properties, Assay methods, Limit tests and Uses  

  i.  Expectorants: of Ammonium chloride, Potassium Iodide. 

 ii.  Emetics: Potassium antimony tartarate, copper Sulphate, Zinc Sulphate. 

 iii.  Antidotes: Sodium thiosulphate, sodium thiosulphate injection , sodium nitrite. 

 iv. Inhalants: Oxygen, Nitrous oxide, dilute solution of ammonia (BP), Ammonium carbonate (BP). 

Definition, Preparation, Properties, Assay methods, Limit tests and Uses  

 (a) Topical agents:   

 i. Astringents: ZnSO₄, Zinc Oxide, Calcium Hydroxide, CuSO₄ and Bismuth subcarbonate. 

 ii. Topical protectants: Zinc oxide, Calamine, Zinc stearate, Talc, Titanium-dioxide, Heavy kaolin and Light kaolin 

 iii.  Silicone polymers: Activated Dimethicone. 

 iv.  Anti infectives: Hydrogen peroxide, Potassium permanganate, Silver Nitrate  (Silver protein), Iodine, (solutions, povidone – iodine), boric acid, zinc – undecylenate, Mercury compounds (Yellow mercuric oxide, Ammoniated Mercury). Sulphur, Selenium sulphide. 

  

(b) Dental products:   

 i. Fluorides: Sodium fluoride, Sodium Monofluorophosphate and stannous fluoride. 

 ii. Oral antiseptics and Astringents: Hydrogen peroxide, Sodium peroxide (BP), Magnesium peroxide, Zinc peroxide and Mouth washes  

 iii. Dentifrices: Calcium carbonate, dibasic calcium phosphate, calcium phosphate, sodium metaphosphate and strontium chloride.  

 iv. Cements and Fillers: Zinc oxide. 

  

(c) Other Medicinal agents:   

 i. Internal parasiticides: Sodium Antimony Gluconate 

 ii. Anti-neoplastic agents: Cisplatin. 

 iii. Sedative-hypnotics: Potassium bromide 

 iv. Anti-depressants: Lithium carbonate 

 v. Anti-rheumatic agents: Sodium aurothiomalate 

 vi. Anti-thyroid agents: Potassium perchlorate 

 vii. Diagnostic agent: Barium Sulphate 

 viii. Surgical aid: Plaster of Paris 

GENERAL & DISPENSING PHARMACY

Pharmacy profession: Pharmacy as a career, Pharmaceutical Education, Registration as a Pharmacist, Brief introduction to Evolution of Pharmacy, European and American Pharmacy. Pharmacopoeia (IP, BP, USP and International) and other sources, SI and imperial systems, inter conversions. Weighing - selection and care of weights and balances. Sensitivity and minimum weighable quantities.

Pharmaceutical calculations: Calculations of doses, enlarging and reducing recipes; Percentage solutions, alligation, alcohol dilutes and proof spirit. 

Prescription: Definition, Parts, sources of errors and care required in dispensing prescriptions, General Dispensing procedures, types of dispensing products. Dispensing of proprietary medicine. Prescription containers, closures and labeling of dispensed products, colors, flavors and sweeteners used in prescription. 

Dosage form: Definition, Advantages and limitations of dosage form. 

Principles involved and procedures adopted in preparation, labeling and dispensing of typical products (Unit III-IV). Uses of official and other products in common use. 

Liquid preparation: Aromatic waters, spirits, solutions, mixtures, syrups, elixirs, suspension, emulsion, lotions, liniments, eye, ear and nasal drops, inhalations, throat paints, gargles, glycerin and collodions. 

Semisolids: Ointments and their bases, creams, jellies, suppositories and their bases, effervescent granules, tablet tritrates, pastilles, lozenges and pills. 

Incompatibilities: Physical, Chemical and Therapeutic incompatibilities. Methods of overcoming and handling of incompatible prescriptions. 

Tinctures and Extracts: Methods of preparation and uses of Tinctures & Extracts official in IP. 

Medicinal Gases: Official medical gases and uses, containers and fitting, handling and storage. 

Radio Pharmaceuticals: Preparation, Therapeutic and Diagnostic uses. 

BIOLOGY

Plant Kingdom: Definition and Classification 

Plant cells: Its structure, living and non-living inclusions. Different types of plant tissues and their functions, Mitosis and Meiosis. 

Morphology and Histology: Roots, Stems, Barks, Woods, Leaf, Flower, Fruit and Seed. Modification: Root, Stem, Leaf and Infloresence. 

Plant Taxonomy: Classification, study of the following families with special references to medicinal and economical important plants 

a) Apocynaceae b) Solanaceae c)Umbelliferae 

d) Leguminosae e) Scrophulariaceae f) Rubiaceae 

Plant Physiology: Absorption, transpiration, respiration photosynthesis, basis in DNA replication. 

Genetic code and Heredity: Polyploidy, hydridization and mutation. 

The study of animal cell: Animal tissue and cell division, difference between plant cell and animal cell, study of different systems of frog. Histology of liver, kidney, skeletal muscles, smooth muscles, pancrease, intestine and endocrine glands of rabbit. 

Morphology and Life History of Human Parasites: Plasmodium, Entamoeba, tapewarm, ascaris, leishmania, anchylostoma and trypanosoma. Life history of Mosquitoes and housefly as agents for spreading diseases.